Mixtures contain two or more substances or components. Mixtures have specific properties that are different from their individual components.
Filtration is used to separate small, solid particles that are suspended in water or air.
Evaporation separates mixtures of solid and liquid solutions by boiling them until the liquid evaporates.
Distillation separates mixtures of pure substances by boiling. The evaporated substance is collected and cooled back into a liquid.
Magnetic separation is used for separating mixtures with solid components, where one of the components is magnetic.
What are heterogeneous mixtures and homogeneous mixtures?
Heterogeneous mixtures have visible components. We can see the components with the naked eye or under a microscope. Rocks with different minerals are heterogeneous mixtures. Homogeneous mixtures, or solutions, don’t have visible components.
• Water solutions are mainly water, but contain other components. An example is salt water.
• Gas mixtures, are made up of different gases. The air we breathe contains nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide and water vapour.
• Alloys are mixtures of two or more metals that are melted and mixed together. An example is bronze, which is an alloy of copper and tin.
There are two general properties of matter.
Mass is the amount of matter in an object. It can
be measured in grams (g) and kilograms (kg). The
mass of an object is always the same.
The weight of an object depends on the effect of
gravity. An astronaut always has the same mass
but in space he will be weightless, because there
is no gravity.
Volume is the amount of space an object occupies.
The volume of solids is usually measured in cubic
centimetres (cm3
) or cubic metres (m3
). The volume
of liquids is usually measured in millilitres (ml) or
litres (l). 1 ml = 1 cm3.
The specific properties of matter are qualities
that differentiate types of matter. These properties
are things like hardness, elasticity and density.
Density is the relationship between the mass and
the volume of an object. Different materials and
substances have different densities.
We use a formula to calculate the density of
objects.
Mass (m) Density (p) =
Volume (V )
Density is measured in g/cm3
or in kg/m3
.
Hardness
Elasticity
Density
What are pure substances?
Pure substances are found in nature. Each pure substance has
specific properties that distinguish it from other substances. Pure
substances are found as solids, liquids or gases. They change states
when they are cooled or heated.
Gold is a shiny, metallic, yellow substance.
It is solid at room temperature.
It has a density of 19.3 g/cm3
.
It becomes liquid at 1 064 ºC and as
a liquid it has a density of 17.3 g/cm3
.
It boils and evaporates at 2 850 ºC
Pure water is a liquid.
It has no colour, taste or smell.
It becomes solid (ice) at 0 ºC.
It boils at 100 ºC and becomes
a gas (water vapour).
It has a density of 1 g/cm3 at 4 ºC.
It has a density of 0.9 g/cm3
when it is solid.
Nitrogen has no colour or smell.
It is a gas at room temperature.
It becomes a transparent
liquid at -196 ºC.
It has a density of 0.81 g/cm3
when it is a liquid.
It becomes a colourless
solid at -210 ºC.
It has a density of 0.3 g/cm3
when it is solid.
There were three significant cultural movements in the
19th century.
• In Romanticism, authors, like Bécquer or Zorilla,
were inspired by the past. They wrote poetry,
novels and plays.
Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer
José Zorilla
• In Realism, writers, like Pérez Galdós and Valera,
described the world around them. They wrote
about Spain’s regions, customs and people.
Benito Pérez Galdós
Episodios Nacionales (47 novelas)
Su obra de teatro Electra causó un gran escándalo dentro de la España tradicionalista y fue clave para que el genio literario español no fuera reconocido el Premio Nobel de Literatura
Caricatura en la revista satíritca Don Quijote, donde se representa a Galdós ensartando con una pluma-lanza —denominada Electra— a un clérigo y una monja
• The Generation of 98 were intellectuals with a
negative view of Spain. Writers like Miguel de
Unamuno and Valle-Inclán, criticised Spanish
institutions and the establishment.
How did architecture develop in the 19th century?
Palacio de cristal. Parque del Retiro (Madrid)
Architects followed historical
influences and designed Neogothic
and Neo-Mudéjar buildings. Public
buildings were often Neoclassical, like
the Congress of Deputies in Madrid.
Neogothic
Palacio de la Buhaira. Sevilla. Neomudéjar.
Costurero de la Reina María de Las Mercedes (Primera esposa de Alfonso XII). Neomudéjar.
Antiguo Instituto de Higiene de Sevilla. Desafortunadamente derribado en 1958.
Neoclásico (imitando las construccioens griegas y romanas)
Neoclassical.
Urban expansion meant that cities
grew and many new roads, houses,
and public buildings were built. New
materials, like iron and glass, were
used in public buildings like train
stations.
What were schools like in the 19th century?
Maestro en la escuela y un torero. Imagen que muestra el dicho "Pasar más hambre que un maestro de escuela".
State education changed in the middle of the 19th century
when Moyano’s Law was passed in 1857. This radical
new law established three phases of education (primary,
secondary and superior). It made education obligatory
for all boys and girls between the ages of six and nine.
There were also many private educational initiatives,
such as the Free Institute of Teaching. This organisation
had schools with mixed-gender classrooms.
Giner de los Ríos. Creador de La Institución Libre de Eseñanza (ILE).
What other cultural institutions were there?
During the 19th century, many artefacts were taken from
churches and given to museums, universities and libraries.
Public exhibitions were organised, and public museums,
like the Prado Museum or the National Archaeological
Museum, were founded.
In the National Library, an archive of every book published
in Spain was created. Music and dance were promoted
through the creation of conservatories.
The press became more important because more people
could read. Advances in telegraph technology, meant
that news could be sent around the country more quickly.
Newspapers represented a range of political views
How did the economy change in the 19th century?
Political stability under Alfonso XII meant that some aspects of the economy
became more modern. Most people still worked in agriculture, but land was
used inefficiently. Land reform laws meant that unused land was sold. This did
not help farm workers as they had no money to buy land. Industrialisation
started slowly, mainly in the north of Spain. There were not a lot of raw materials,
energy sources or investment in industry. New railways, telegraph posts, roads
and canals helped commerce and trade. In 1856, the National Bank of Spain was
founded and in 1868, the peseta became Spain’s legal currency.
How did people’s lives change?
In the 19th century, a capitalist class system
emerged. The bourgeoisie owned land and
factories. The middle class were merchants,
civil servants and professionals. The lower
class (about 80% of the population) worked
in factories, on the land, or as servants.
Rural poverty meant that many people
emigrated to cities or abroad. Working
conditions were hard and unsanitary. People
worked long hours for little money. Labour
movements to improve these conditions
formed in Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia and
Andalucía.
